...Political Isalm in Egypt following the 1967 Six Day War.
Midterm paper for History and Politics of the Middle East. The assignment: Account for the rise in political Islam in Egypt after 1967. Circa 1000 words, use at least five separate sources, quotes not necessary.
Taylor Williams
November 18, 2004
History and Politics of the Middle East
The Effects of Social, Economic, and Political Issues in the Rise of Political Islam in Egypt Following the 1967 Six Day War
The rise in political Islam in Egypt following the year 1967 was contingent upon a number of factors. Those factors span the entire spectrum of life in Egypt, from the arena of national politics to the local gathering spots. Before progressing into an analysis of how those factors effected the rise to prominence of political Islam, one must first gain some grasp on what exactly political Islam is, and more importantly, was. For the purposes of this analysis, political Islam will be understood as the movement to establish Islam as a major player in all facets of life, with particular emphasis on politics and state regulated entities, rather than as a private religious practice. Though it was a far reaching movement, by no means located in only one country, Egypt’s particular circumstances provide a fertile ground within which to examine it. Moreover, constraining the time span to after the six-day war in 1967 removes the actual conception of the movement and only looks at its struggle for prominence. That prominence can be seen in three distinct, yet still overlapping sectors of Egypt’s state issues: social, economic, and political.
Perhaps the most prominent social issue, which would have been in the forefront of everyone’s mind in the years directly following 1967, would have been the six-day war. Apart from constraining the extent of this analysis, the war itself holds more than a little of the responsibility for the elevation of political Islam. Prior to the war, the prevailing understanding was that Egypt was quite strong, that the alliances Nasser was building among other Arab states with a view to creating an Arab Supra-State were also strong and prepared to take on their common enemy, Israel. After the Egypt-Syria-Jordan alliance had been thoroughly, and unequivocally, beaten in the course of six short days, people were left wondering where to turn to. Islam was the answer for many, if not the overwhelming majority. Other social issues also played a part in this renewed focus. The Egyptian people, I say Egyptian as a growing sense of nationalism was also taking root, had also just immerged from a number of years in experimentation with outside ideals of how a country should be run, socialism versus capitalism, namely. These ideals had not shown any promise for them, and they began to look inward, rather than outward, or westward, for their sense of a future. With an economy that can be called anything but fruitful, many people found themselves enduring a quality of living that led them to seek assurance. Asef Bayat, professor of sociology at American University in Cairo, in an article published in the Middle East Report, calls this proactive search of assurance “quiet encroachment,” and exemplifies how people were not only looking for spiritual assurance, but quite definite, physical assurance as well. The underlying, driving element of this quest, once again, is a renewed focus on Islam as a unifying factor.
Egypt’s economic issues in the last 30 years of the millennium had more effects than the social response previously discussed. Coming on the heels of Nasser’s socialist experiment, which saw the state taking over whatever private industries existed, Sadat was left trying to back peddle and find some way to revive the country. He attempted this through a policy of Infitah, or opening up of the Egyptian economic engine, not only to nationalistic privatization, but also to international interests. He did so to the effect of driving the poverty stricken lower classes even further down into deeper and deeper defined peasantry. The lower classes were left seeking any form of connection they could establish with their malevolent providers. The progression of political Islam, especially as it manifests itself in the Muslim Brotherhood was, and remains to be, a multi layered approach that gave each individual that link, to some degree, with the ruling class, and with the gap between the upper and lower classes widening at an incredible rate, it is no wander that people began to seek out new ways to have their needs recognized.
Though social and economic issues were instrumental in facilitating the elevation of political Islam, they are, themselves, almost completely hinged upon the political climate that spawned them. Prior to the war, Nasser had established for himself an unequivocal, unilateral control of his country that even stretched into neighboring countries through the experiment of the United Arab Republic. That control included the repression of any, every entity, be it social, political, religious, or otherwise, which posed a threat to his leadership. Prime among those was the Muslim Brotherhood, the premier group advocating, and furthering political Islam. After the devastating defeat he suffered at the hands of a seemingly much weaker enemy in the 1967 war, Nasser’s power was all but bankrupt. Though he still retained his leadership position for a few more years, and for the most part still had the faith of his people, he was no longer able to act on his vision for the Middle East. Nasser’s successor, Anwar Sadat, was then left in the extremely precarious position of trying to earn the respect of his predecessor. However, Sadat did not have the commanding personality that Nasser had. On top of that, Sadat liked to live a life of luxury and very much enjoyed the trappings of power and office. This contrasted sharply with the precedent that Nasser had set. In an attempt to distance himself from Nasser, Sadat allowed the Muslim Brotherhood to begin to function again, and it quickly rose in prominence for the reasons previously discussed, till it became a formidable entity, and even took on separate political and military wings. Sadat seemed to solidify his fate when he agreed to peace talks with Israel at Camp David under US President Jimmy Carter. Abandoning the other Arab states involved in the conflict, he flew to the United States in September of 1978 and reached an agreement with Israel, which failed to secure a Palestinian homeland, or anything resembling a favorable outcome. In October, 1981, Sadat was assassinated by Al-Jihad in an action they hoped would lead to a more Islamic ruler. This assassination signals the main thrust of political Islam into public affairs, which will not be restrained by any means.
Factors facilitating the rise of Political Islam were many, and it is clear that they were decisive. Whatever the reasons were, there can be no question that Islam began to emerge as a key political force in Egypt, especially after 1967.
Works Cited
1) Cleveland, William L. A History of the Modern Middle East, Third Edition. Westview Press, Oxford: 2004
2) Owen, Roger. State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East, Third Edition. Routledge, London: 2004
3) Hirshkind, Charles. “What is Political Islam?” Middle East Report, October-December, 1997
4) Bayat, Asef. “Cairo’s Poor, Dilemmas of Survival and Solidarity.” Middle East Report. Winter, 1997
5) "Special Report: Middle Eastern Affairs." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2004. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 17 Nov. 2004.
Taylor Williams
November 18, 2004
History and Politics of the Middle East
The Effects of Social, Economic, and Political Issues in the Rise of Political Islam in Egypt Following the 1967 Six Day War
The rise in political Islam in Egypt following the year 1967 was contingent upon a number of factors. Those factors span the entire spectrum of life in Egypt, from the arena of national politics to the local gathering spots. Before progressing into an analysis of how those factors effected the rise to prominence of political Islam, one must first gain some grasp on what exactly political Islam is, and more importantly, was. For the purposes of this analysis, political Islam will be understood as the movement to establish Islam as a major player in all facets of life, with particular emphasis on politics and state regulated entities, rather than as a private religious practice. Though it was a far reaching movement, by no means located in only one country, Egypt’s particular circumstances provide a fertile ground within which to examine it. Moreover, constraining the time span to after the six-day war in 1967 removes the actual conception of the movement and only looks at its struggle for prominence. That prominence can be seen in three distinct, yet still overlapping sectors of Egypt’s state issues: social, economic, and political.
Perhaps the most prominent social issue, which would have been in the forefront of everyone’s mind in the years directly following 1967, would have been the six-day war. Apart from constraining the extent of this analysis, the war itself holds more than a little of the responsibility for the elevation of political Islam. Prior to the war, the prevailing understanding was that Egypt was quite strong, that the alliances Nasser was building among other Arab states with a view to creating an Arab Supra-State were also strong and prepared to take on their common enemy, Israel. After the Egypt-Syria-Jordan alliance had been thoroughly, and unequivocally, beaten in the course of six short days, people were left wondering where to turn to. Islam was the answer for many, if not the overwhelming majority. Other social issues also played a part in this renewed focus. The Egyptian people, I say Egyptian as a growing sense of nationalism was also taking root, had also just immerged from a number of years in experimentation with outside ideals of how a country should be run, socialism versus capitalism, namely. These ideals had not shown any promise for them, and they began to look inward, rather than outward, or westward, for their sense of a future. With an economy that can be called anything but fruitful, many people found themselves enduring a quality of living that led them to seek assurance. Asef Bayat, professor of sociology at American University in Cairo, in an article published in the Middle East Report, calls this proactive search of assurance “quiet encroachment,” and exemplifies how people were not only looking for spiritual assurance, but quite definite, physical assurance as well. The underlying, driving element of this quest, once again, is a renewed focus on Islam as a unifying factor.
Egypt’s economic issues in the last 30 years of the millennium had more effects than the social response previously discussed. Coming on the heels of Nasser’s socialist experiment, which saw the state taking over whatever private industries existed, Sadat was left trying to back peddle and find some way to revive the country. He attempted this through a policy of Infitah, or opening up of the Egyptian economic engine, not only to nationalistic privatization, but also to international interests. He did so to the effect of driving the poverty stricken lower classes even further down into deeper and deeper defined peasantry. The lower classes were left seeking any form of connection they could establish with their malevolent providers. The progression of political Islam, especially as it manifests itself in the Muslim Brotherhood was, and remains to be, a multi layered approach that gave each individual that link, to some degree, with the ruling class, and with the gap between the upper and lower classes widening at an incredible rate, it is no wander that people began to seek out new ways to have their needs recognized.
Though social and economic issues were instrumental in facilitating the elevation of political Islam, they are, themselves, almost completely hinged upon the political climate that spawned them. Prior to the war, Nasser had established for himself an unequivocal, unilateral control of his country that even stretched into neighboring countries through the experiment of the United Arab Republic. That control included the repression of any, every entity, be it social, political, religious, or otherwise, which posed a threat to his leadership. Prime among those was the Muslim Brotherhood, the premier group advocating, and furthering political Islam. After the devastating defeat he suffered at the hands of a seemingly much weaker enemy in the 1967 war, Nasser’s power was all but bankrupt. Though he still retained his leadership position for a few more years, and for the most part still had the faith of his people, he was no longer able to act on his vision for the Middle East. Nasser’s successor, Anwar Sadat, was then left in the extremely precarious position of trying to earn the respect of his predecessor. However, Sadat did not have the commanding personality that Nasser had. On top of that, Sadat liked to live a life of luxury and very much enjoyed the trappings of power and office. This contrasted sharply with the precedent that Nasser had set. In an attempt to distance himself from Nasser, Sadat allowed the Muslim Brotherhood to begin to function again, and it quickly rose in prominence for the reasons previously discussed, till it became a formidable entity, and even took on separate political and military wings. Sadat seemed to solidify his fate when he agreed to peace talks with Israel at Camp David under US President Jimmy Carter. Abandoning the other Arab states involved in the conflict, he flew to the United States in September of 1978 and reached an agreement with Israel, which failed to secure a Palestinian homeland, or anything resembling a favorable outcome. In October, 1981, Sadat was assassinated by Al-Jihad in an action they hoped would lead to a more Islamic ruler. This assassination signals the main thrust of political Islam into public affairs, which will not be restrained by any means.
Factors facilitating the rise of Political Islam were many, and it is clear that they were decisive. Whatever the reasons were, there can be no question that Islam began to emerge as a key political force in Egypt, especially after 1967.
Works Cited
1) Cleveland, William L. A History of the Modern Middle East, Third Edition. Westview Press, Oxford: 2004
2) Owen, Roger. State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East, Third Edition. Routledge, London: 2004
3) Hirshkind, Charles. “What is Political Islam?” Middle East Report, October-December, 1997
4) Bayat, Asef. “Cairo’s Poor, Dilemmas of Survival and Solidarity.” Middle East Report. Winter, 1997
5) "Special Report: Middle Eastern Affairs." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2004. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 17 Nov. 2004
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